George Washington’s posthumous promotion to General of the Armies

George Washington’s posthumous promotion to General of the Armies: Ensuring his legacy as the nation’s highest-ranking military officer

Introduction

George Washington’s military legacy is unparalleled in American history. As the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolution and the first president of the United States, Washington set the standard for leadership, patriotism, and duty to country. His influence on the development of the U.S. military and government remains profound. However, an important posthumous recognition of his service came in the 20th century, when Washington was officially promoted to the rank of General of the Armies of the United States, ensuring that no future military officer could ever outrank him.

This essay explores the historical context, the process that led to Washington’s posthumous promotion, and the significance of this unique honor.

Historical context: Washington’s military leadership

Before delving into the details of Washington’s posthumous promotion, it is essential to understand the importance of his military role.

Washington led the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783, guiding the fledgling American forces to victory against Great Britain, the world’s most powerful military force at the time. His strategic acumen, resilience, and ability to maintain the morale of his troops through hardships such as the winter at Valley Forge, earned him widespread admiration. Following the war, Washington willingly relinquished power, resigning his commission in 1783 - an act that reinforced the principles of civilian control over the military.

During his presidency (1789-1797), Washington played a key role in shaping the military and the emerging federal government. His voluntary departure from office set another crucial precedent, reinforcing the democratic principle of peaceful transitions of power.

Washington’s military career concluded in 1798 when President John Adams appointed him as Lieutenant General and Commander of the U.S. Army during the Quasi-War with France. However, his service in that role was largely ceremonial, and he died in 1799 before seeing active engagement.

The rank of General of the Armies and its history

The highest military rank in the U.S. at the time of Washington’s death was Lieutenant General, the three-star rank he had held since 1798. However, as the U.S. military expanded in the 19th and 20th centuries, higher ranks were introduced.

During World War I, General John J. Pershing was awarded the title General of the Armies in 1919. Though Pershing wore four stars, his rank was considered superior to the newly created five-star rank of General of the Army during World War II. Nonetheless, because the specifics of Pershing’s rank were never fully clarified, some ambiguity remained regarding the hierarchy of military leadership in U.S. history.

To prevent any future officer from outranking Washington, Congress sought to formally establish him as the highest-ranking military figure in perpetuity.

The legislative process of Washington’s posthumous promotion

The process of granting Washington the title of General of the Armies of the United States officially began in the 1970s, as part of the nation’s bicentennial preparations. Recognizing Washington’s unmatched contributions to the country, lawmakers aimed to symbolically reaffirm his supreme status within the military hierarchy.

The 1976 Joint Resolution

On October 11, 1976, Congress passed Public Law 94-479, which posthumously promoted George Washington to General of the Armies of the United States. The legislation stated:

“In order to commemorate the bicentennial of the United States of America and to recognize the unique contributions of General George Washington to the historic foundation of the United States, it is considered fitting and proper that no officer of the United States Army should outrank Lieutenant General George Washington on the Army list.”

The law granted Washington this rank retroactively to July 4, 1976, ensuring that he would forever remain the highest-ranking officer in the U.S. military.

Presidential approval and implementation

The resolution was signed into law by President Gerald Ford, who fully endorsed the decision as a tribute to Washington’s legacy. Though purely symbolic, this act solidified Washington’s preeminence in the military chain of command, ensuring that no future general, regardless of title, would ever outrank him.

The symbolism and legacy of Washington’s promotion

The posthumous promotion of George Washington to General of the Armies of the United States carried profound symbolic meaning.

Recognition of leadership and service

The promotion reaffirmed Washington’s role as the father of the American military and nation. His leadership during the Revolutionary War, presidency, and beyond established the foundation upon which the country’s military and government were built.

Precedent for military hierarchy

By granting Washington an unmatchable rank, Congress ensured that his military status remained unchallenged in American history. This act symbolized the enduring respect and admiration for his leadership.

Bicentennial commemoration

The timing of the promotion, coinciding with the U.S. bicentennial, reflected a broader effort to honor and reflect on the country’s founding principles.

Civilian control of the military

Washington’s legacy exemplifies the principle of civilian supremacy over the military, a cornerstone of American democracy. His promotion reinforced this ideal, as no future military leader could claim superiority over the first president, who voluntarily relinquished power.

Conclusion

George Washington’s posthumous promotion to General of the Armies of the United States was a fitting tribute to his unparalleled contributions to American history. By ensuring that no officer would ever outrank him, the U.S. government reaffirmed his status as the nation’s foremost military leader. This act, though symbolic, underscored the profound respect for Washington’s service and his role in shaping the United States.

Through this honor, Washington’s legacy as the ultimate American general and statesman remains unchallenged, securing his place at the pinnacle of U.S. military history.

George Wallace's presidential campaigns in 1968 and 1972

George Wallace’s disruptive presidential campaigns: 1968 vs. 1972

George C. Wallace, the former governor of Alabama, was a singular force in American politics during the volatile era of the late 1960s and early 1970s. His runs for the presidency in 1968 and 1972 reflected not only his unique appeal but also the deep fractures running through American society. Though both campaigns were fueled by populist rhetoric, racial grievance, and anti-elite sentiment, the differences in strategy, structure, and outcome were significant. In 1968, Wallace disrupted the general election as a third-party candidate, drawing significant support from white working-class voters and threatening the two-party system. In 1972, he competed within the Democratic primaries and, before an assassination attempt halted his campaign, was a formidable contender. Each campaign reshaped the political landscape in its own way.

Wallace in 1968: The outsider disruptor



In 1968, Wallace ran as the candidate of the American Independent Party, a third-party effort grounded in Southern populism, segregationist rhetoric, and anti-establishment fervor. His campaign emerged amid a chaotic national backdrop: the assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy, widespread riots, the Vietnam War, and President Lyndon Johnson’s decision not to seek reelection. The major party candidates - Republican Richard Nixon and Democrat Hubert Humphrey - were seen by many as uninspiring or compromised. Wallace capitalized on this discontent.



Wallace’s core message was blunt and inflammatory. He championed "law and order," opposed federal intervention in states’ rights (particularly around civil rights issues), and mocked liberal intellectuals. He often said what others wouldn’t. His appeal was strongest among white working-class voters - many of them traditionally Democratic - who were disillusioned by civil rights reforms, urban unrest, and the anti-war movement.



Wallace's disruption was tangible. He won five Southern states (Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, and Arkansas), took 13.5% of the national vote (close to 10 million votes), and carried 46 electoral votes - still the most successful third-party presidential run since Theodore Roosevelt in 1912. Wallace pulled voters from both Nixon and Humphrey. His campaign likely drew more from the traditional Democratic base, particularly white Southerners who might otherwise have voted for Humphrey, but his anti-liberal rhetoric also appealed to some disaffected Republicans. Nixon feared a scenario where Wallace would deny both major candidates a majority in the Electoral College, throwing the election to the House of Representatives. This very real possibility put Wallace at the center of 1968’s political storm.





Wallace in 1972: A populist Democrat with momentum

By 1972, Wallace recalibrated. He entered the Democratic primaries as a registered Democrat rather than running third-party, aiming to be more than just a spoiler - he wanted to win the nomination. Though he remained a staunch segregationist in earlier years, Wallace began softening his rhetoric, subtly shifting from overt racism to a more coded form of populism. His message stayed rooted in economic grievance and cultural resentment: attacking “pointy-headed bureaucrats,” welfare programs, crime, and forced busing.

Wallace’s campaign struck a nerve. In the early 1972 primaries, he shocked the political establishment by winning over a broad swath of voters - not just in the South but also in Northern industrial states. He won convincingly in Florida with over 40% of the vote and performed strongly in Michigan, Indiana, Tennessee, and North Carolina. In the Michigan primary, he came in a strong second, just behind the liberal favorite George McGovern, a U.S. Senator from South Dakota, and beat other mainstream candidates like Hubert Humphrey. His support was strongest among working-class whites, union members, and voters angry at the pace of social change.

Then came the turning point: on May 15, 1972, Wallace was shot five times by Arthur Bremer, a native of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, while Wallace was on the campaign trail making an appearance at a shopping center in Laurel, Maryland. The shooting left Wallace permanently paralyzed from the waist down and ended his campaign’s momentum. Though he continued to appear on ballots and even won some late primaries (Maryland and Michigan), his physical incapacity and the media's focus on his recovery overshadowed any further serious campaigning. More crucially, Democratic Party elites, who had already been wary of Wallace's divisive appeal, turned away entirely.



Did the shooting cost Wallace the Democratic nomination in 1972?

It's unlikely that George Wallace would have won the 1972 Democratic nomination, even had he not been shot. The Democratic Party’s national structure - dominated by liberals and union leadership - viewed Wallace as a threat to party unity and electability. The eventual nominee, George McGovern, represented the opposite end of the party’s ideological spectrum: anti-war, pro-civil rights, and socially liberal.

However, Wallace was on track to gather a substantial number of delegates, and with the Democratic primary field deeply fractured (including McGovern, Humphrey, Scoop Jackson, and others), he might have been able to broker significant influence at the convention. He could have served as a kingmaker - or at least shaped the party’s message toward more conservative or populist tones. The shooting removed that possibility.



The attack also froze Wallace’s public image in a moment of sympathy. While it didn't erase his segregationist past, it added a layer of martyrdom among his followers and gave him national attention as a victim of political violence. It arguably set the stage for his later political rehabilitation in Alabama, where he was re-elected governor in 1974 and eventually renounced his earlier racist positions.

If Wallace had in fact been the Democratic nominee in the 1972 presidential election, he could have significantly reshaped the conservative vote - and possibly siphoned off a portion of Richard Nixon’s base.



Wallace’s appeal to working-class white voters, particularly in the South and among the “silent majority,” overlapped with key parts of Nixon’s support. His populist rhetoric, strong law-and-order stance, and fierce opposition to desegregation and federal overreach resonated with voters who were wary of social change and skeptical of government. These were the same voters Nixon targeted with his “Southern Strategy” and themes of stability and traditional values. Wallace may have also gained significant traction in Rust Belt states with his anti-elitist, pro-working class platform.

In short, Wallace on the Democratic ticket would have posed a serious threat to Nixon's ability to dominate the conservative electorate. While Wallace’s extreme positions may have alienated moderates and liberals, his presence could have fractured the right-leaning vote, tightening what was otherwise a Nixon landslide in 1972. The actual Democratic Party nominee that year, McGovern, only carried Massachusetts and the District of Columbia in the general election against Nixon.



Conclusion

George Wallace was one of the most polarizing and consequential figures in late 20th-century American politics. His 1968 third-party run demonstrated how a populist outsider could disrupt a national election by appealing to cultural and racial resentment. In 1972, he showed he could command serious influence within the Democratic Party, especially among disaffected working-class voters. The assassination attempt cut that campaign short, ending what could have been a more prolonged battle for the soul of the Democratic Party.

Wallace’s legacy is mixed and complicated. He did not win the presidency, but his blend of populist messaging, coded racial appeals, and anti-establishment anger laid groundwork for future political figures - on both the right and left - who would channel similar frustrations. His 1968 and 1972 campaigns were not only about electoral math but about the changing identity of American politics.

Fun facts about Key West, Florida

 Some fun and interesting facts about Key West, Florida

Photo credit: Aaron S. Robertson

 

I visited Key West between August 16-21, 2021, and this blog post is part of my broader Key West travel series. Stay tuned for plenty more material in the series, as I look forward to sharing with you my trip to Key West through recollections, stories, histories of the island and some of its more well-known residents, reviews, travel tips, and of course, more photos!

The wealthiest city in the United States per capita during the 1830s

You read that right - Key West was the wealthiest city per capita in the country during the 1830s. TravelExperta points out that much of the wealth during this time was generated from, "...treasure retrieval from shipwrecks off the coast." Florida-Backroads-Travel.com notes that Key West was the wealthiest and largest city in Florida in the years leading up to the Civil War, and it still remained near the top of the list for the wealthiest cities in the country during this time.

The only Union city south of the Mason-Dixon line during the Civil War

There were definitely Confederate sympathizers in Key West, no doubt, but Union forces were able to retain a tight grip on the city, thanks in large part to their control of Fort Zachary Taylor on the island, as well as Fort Jefferson some 70 miles west. It also certainly helped, as this post from the MilitaryHistoryNow.com blog entitled, "Key West - The Confederate City that Seceded from the Civil War," points out, that good portions of the residential population at the time were originally either from New England or the Bahamas, and therefore had no particular interest in fighting for the South - or for anyone, for that matter. These factors combined to award Key West the unique distinction of being the only Union city in the South.

Never above 100 degrees 

While walking the streets of downtown Key West, I overheard the tour guide/driver of a tour trolley explaining to his passengers that Key West, as hot and as muggy as the climate is, has never recorded a temperature over 100 degrees. This blog post from June 2017 entitled, "10 Cities in United States That Have Never Been Above 100 Degrees," published on the Joe Dorish Weather blog, confirms this.

Duval Street - the longest street in the world?

At just 1.25 miles long, Duval Street, the heart of the downtown Key West scene, can playfully boast that it's the longest street in the world - it runs from the Atlantic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico.

That's a lot of bridges!

There are 42 bridges connecting the island to the Florida mainland. 

The Conch Republic - Key West secedes from the United States for a brief time in the 1980s!

You read that right, as well. For a very short time in 1982, Key West declared independence from the United States, and the Conch Republic was born. While the secession was largely in good fun and playful in nature, the frustration and annoyance felt by residents and business owners leading up to it was certainly real. The U.S. Border Patrol had set up a roadblock and checkpoint to inspect every car entering or leaving Key West for drugs and anyone here in the country illegally. You can read more about the formation of the Conch Republic on Wikipedia. 

Famous residents

Key West was home to, among others, Ernest Hemingway, Tennessee Williams, and Major League Baseball star John "Boog" Powell. President Harry Truman visited Key West 11 times, for a total of 175 days, during his presidency. He stayed at a house on a U.S. Navy base. That house is now a museum known as the Truman Little White House.

U.S. presidential trivia

Part of our occasional series, Interesting but useless trivia. Trivia that is certainly interesting, but yeah, pretty useless in the grand scheme of things. Not likely to result in a promotion, raise, or your next big career move.

U.S. presidential trivia

Keeping the White House in the family: John Adams is the father of John Quincy Adams. William Henry Harrison is the grandfather of Benjamin Harrison. Zachary Taylor and James Madison are second cousins. Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin Roosevelt are fifth cousins, and Theodore is also the uncle of Franklin’s wife, Eleanor. Richard Nixon and Jimmy Carter are sixth cousins. George H.W. Bush is the father of George W. Bush.

The luckiest man in the world, or the unluckiest? You decide. Amidst all the turmoil going on in the Nixon administration, Gerald Ford, a long-time Republican congressman from Michigan, ended up becoming vice president, and, shortly after, president, without having been elected to either office. He had been serving as House Minority Leader in the House of Representatives up to the time of his confirmation by the Senate to become vice president.

William Henry Harrison (1773-1841): The first president to die in office; the last president born as
a British subject; until Ronald Reagan came along in 1981, he was the oldest president to take office; only one of four presidents to be a member of the Whig Party; the grandfather of a future president; the longest inaugural address at a whopping one hour and 45 minutes long; and the shortest amount of time in office with just 30 days.

President for one day? Read about the highly-controversial yet interesting claim that David Rice Atchison, a Democratic U.S. Senator from Missouri, served as president for one day, March 4, 1849: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Rice_Atchison





More neat and fun facts about U.S. presidents and the presidency:

http://www.legendsofamerica.com/ah-presidenttrivia.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_the_United_States_by_political_affiliation

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/08/0823_040823_presidentialtrivia.html

http://blogs.britannica.com/2009/01/inaugural-adresses-the-longest-shortest-dumbest-and-most-memorable