Realism is a foundational theory in international relations and political science, emphasizing the competitive and conflictual nature of international politics. Realists contend that the international system is anarchic, meaning there is no overarching authority above states. This essay explores the core beliefs of realism, its primary theorists, and the various subcategories within the realist tradition.
Core beliefs of realism
At its core, realism asserts that the international system is governed by anarchy. This lack of a central authority compels states to prioritize their own survival and security above all else. Realists argue that states are rational actors, making strategic decisions to maximize their power and ensure their survival. Power, often measured in military and economic terms, is the primary currency in international politics.
Realism posits that the nature of international relations is inherently competitive. States must constantly be on guard against threats from other states, leading to a perpetual state of tension and the potential for conflict. This view is encapsulated in the concept of the "security dilemma," where actions taken by a state to increase its security (such as amassing military capabilities) can make other states feel less secure, prompting them to respond in kind and thereby increasing overall insecurity.
Main theorists
Several key figures have shaped the realist tradition in international relations:
- Thucydides: Often considered one of the earliest realists, Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War highlights the enduring nature of power struggles and the strategic considerations that drive state behavior.
- Niccolò Machiavelli: In The Prince, Machiavelli outlines a pragmatic approach to power, emphasizing the necessity for rulers to be shrewd and ruthless when needed to maintain their states.
- Thomas Hobbes: Hobbes' depiction of the "state of nature" in Leviathan draws a parallel to the anarchic international system, where life without a sovereign authority is "nasty, brutish, and short."
- Hans Morgenthau: A modern realist, Morgenthau's Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace is seminal in articulating the principles of classical realism, emphasizing power politics and the inherent selfishness of states.
Subcategories of realism
Realism is not a monolithic theory but encompasses several subcategories, each offering a distinct perspective on international relations.
- Classical realism: Rooted in the works of Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Hobbes, classical realism attributes the competitive nature of international politics to human nature. It suggests that the lust for power and the pursuit of self-interest are inherent in human beings, which translates into state behavior on the international stage.
- Structural realism (Neorealism): Developed by Kenneth Waltz, structural realism shifts the focus from human nature to the anarchic structure of the international system. Waltz argues that the distribution of power (polarity) among states determines the nature of international relations. In a unipolar, bipolar, or multipolar world, the number of great powers and their interactions shape the dynamics of global politics.
- Defensive realism: A variant of structural realism, defensive realism, as articulated by Stephen Walt and Robert Jervis, suggests that states are primarily security seekers. They are more likely to engage in balancing behavior to maintain their security rather than maximizing power aggressively. This approach emphasizes the importance of maintaining the status quo and avoiding unnecessary conflicts.
- Offensive realism: Contrasting defensive realism, offensive realism, as proposed by John Mearsheimer, posits that states are inherently power maximizers. In an anarchic international system, the best way for a state to ensure its survival is to seek dominance and hegemony. This aggressive pursuit of power can lead to frequent conflicts as states continually strive to outmaneuver each other.
- Neoclassical realism: Neoclassical realism, represented by scholars such as Gideon Rose and Randall Schweller, integrates both domestic and international factors in explaining state behavior. It acknowledges that internal factors, such as state leadership, political institutions, and national interests, play a crucial role in shaping a state's foreign policy. This approach seeks to bridge the gap between structural constraints and the agency of individual states.
Conclusion
Realism remains a pivotal theory in understanding international relations, providing valuable insights into the behavior of states and the dynamics of global politics. By emphasizing the anarchic nature of the international system and the primacy of power, realism offers a pragmatic framework for analyzing the complex and often adversarial interactions among states. The diverse subcategories within realism - classical, structural, defensive, offensive, and neoclassical - demonstrate the theory's adaptability and depth, ensuring its continued relevance in the study of international relations.
